The Surrender of Imam Shamil and the End of the Caucasus War - Hadji Ali al-Chokh, 1859
Translation of an eye-witness account of the final chapter of Russia's conquest of the Caucasus
Preliminary note: For Gmail readers, this essay might be clipped due to size limitations. To read the entire essay simply click on “View entire message” at the bottom of the email, thanks.
Translator’s Introduction
Below is a translation of an except from “An Eyewitness Account of Shamil” (Сказание Очервидца Шамиля) by Hadji Ali al-Chokh. The excerpt is a first hand account of the surrender of Imam Shamil, the leader of the Caucasus Imamate, based in modern day Dagestan and Chechnya in the North Caucasus. Shamil’s surrender brought the nearly 50 year long Caucasus War to an end. This text is particularly important as it is one of the only primary sources written from the perspective of the Caucasian highlanders themselves, whereas the vast majority of sources were written by Russians and from the Russian point of view.
The author, Hadji Ali al-Chokh, was a Muslim scholar from the Avar1 village of Chokh, located in central Dagestan (just south from Gunib). Both himself and his father served as translators for Russia, but sometime in the 1840’s Hadji Ali joined Shamil and his Murids, the armed followers of Shamil. Under Shamil, Hadji Ali served as the chief engineer responsible for the construction of fortifications in the mountains and as secretary, managing Shamil’s written and diplomatic correspondence, as well as Imamate’s financial affairs. Hadji Ali’s chronicle, “An Eyewitness Account of Shamil” was initially written during his service to Shamil, and was later edited and published in the 1860’s. The text was originally written in Arabic and was later translated into Russian by the military translator Kh. A. Podkhalyuzin, sometime around 1873. Hadji Ali’s chronicle was later republished by Vladilen Gadzhiev, a Dagestani historian, in 1995. A longer biography on Hadji Ali can be found here. The source for this translation can be found here, under subtitle “Сдача Шамиля Главакомандующему”.
In the post-Mongol era, Russia first came into contact with the Caucasus in the 1500’s, following Moscow’s conquest of the Volga River khanates. With the Volga River in Russian hands, Cossacks and officials were able to sail down into the Caspian Sea, and from there they established settlements along the Terek and Sulak Rivers, in the northern plains of modern day Dagestan and Chechnya. From then on relations between the Russians and the Caucasian highlanders were defined both by trade and conflict, with both sides regularly raiding each other for livestock and women. By the late 18th century Russia had fully expanded up the mountains, and in 1801 the Kingdom of Georgia which lay south beyond the Caucasus Mountains was annexed to the empire. Soon after, the Russians conquered much of what is today the territory of modern Azerbaijan. Yet, the highlanders in the tall and formidable Caucasus remained free and outside Russian rule.
The continued independence of the North Caucasus highlanders now became a serious issue for Russia. All that connected Russia to its new possessions south of the mountains was the Daryal Pass that cuts through the heart of the Caucasus and the Caspian lowland corridor via Derbent. These thin lifelines were under constant threat by the highlanders in the mountains, whose wild freedom verged on out-right anarchy. As Russia’s possessions in the South Caucasus remained under threat from the Ottoman Turks and Persia, securing the two logistical lifelines became a necessity, and this could only be achieved by outright conquering the highlander populations of modern day Chechnya and Dagestan.
Not only were these peoples extremely warlike (and still are), they were also highly independent. The highlanders fiercely resisted all foreign impositions to their freedom. And along with their warlike nature, the geography of the Caucasus made them especially unconquerable. Chechnya is land of densely forested mountains and deep, narrow gorges, while Dagestan is an arid labyrinth of valleys and ranges, with every village doubling as a hilltop fortress. To quote a Russian general, “The Caucasus may be likened to a mighty fortress, strong by nature, artificially protected by military works, and defended by a numerous garrison. Only thoughtless men would attempt to escalade such a stronghold.” Never before in history had any power conquered the highlanders.
While the the highlanders were highly independent, organized moreso along tribal lines, with “states” rarely encompassing more than local villages, in response to the threat posed by Russia they established the Imamate in 1828. The Imamate was an Islamic theocracy organized for the sole purpose of resisting Russian rule. Prior, the highlanders were not intensely Muslim. Like in many other places, Islam existed alongside many pre-Islamic beliefs and customs. But in order to unify the various clans and peoples, the Imamate modeled itself as a strict Islamic theocracy. It is often noted by scholars that Islam can have very a powerful effect on mountainous peoples divided among clans, as Islam can transcend tribal division and unify a people, often against an foreign invader. This partially explains the success of the Taliban against both the Soviet Union and American for example.
In 1834 the Imamate came under the rule of Imam Shamil, who was known for his zealous commitment to the cause and his high sense of justice (he famously wiped his own elderly mother as punishment for daring to mention peace with Russia). Under his leadership the Imamate successfully held off Russia for decades and even mounted several offensives that pushed Russian power back, including a nearly successfully attempt to seize the Daryal Pass and cut Georgia off from Russia.
The Russians began to systematically clear the forests of Chechnya, which reduced the cover and hiding places that the highlanders could use. They also began building forts around Shamil’s territory, which were slowly advanced deeper and deeper into the mountains. Eventually by 1859 the Russians had successfully reduced Shamil’s power in the mountains. After Veden in south-easten Chechnya was lost, Shamil and his remaining followers were forced to retreat to Gunib, the great fortress-palace in central Dagestan. There, they fortified the village with a wall and awaited the Russian siege.
With around 400 followers, Shamil held off the Russian army numbering over 10,000 men for nearly a month. Eventually on 25th August, 1859, Shamil surrendered with his surviving warrior and their families. The text below tells this story.
After his surrender, Shamil and his family were exiled to Kaluga, southwest of Moscow. Some years later, Shamil was given permission to travel to Mecca for Hajj. After visiting Mecca, he died in Medina in 1871 and remains buried there. Today Imam Shamil is publicly celebrated in Dagestan, which remains apart of the Russian Federation.
Going forward I plan to post many more excerpts from Hadji Ali al-Chokh’s chronicle of Shamil. This introduction has been particularly detailed as it be referred to in future posts. It is maybe strange to begin with the end of Shamil’s story, but I think it serves as a good introduction. Future excerpts will also be published non-chronologically.
The Surrender of Shamil to the Commander in Chief Prince Baryatinsky
When the screams increased from all sides for one of Shamil’s most trusted companions to be sent to the Russian commander in chief, Shamil called me and ordered I go and conclude peace with the Russians and ask for mercy. I departed from the village with my comrade Yunus Chirkeevsky. Some Murids fired at the Russians, I ordered them to stop. I looked in all four directions: everything was covered by the Russians. When they saw me, they shouted out suddenly: “Come here! Come here!”. I went to the one who was closest. This was some sort of general. I asked: “Who are you?” He said to me that he is General Kessler.2 Then Lieutenant Smirnov and the Armenian Zakhar approached me and said, General Kessler has ordered our weapons to be taken and returned once peace is concluded. I gave Zakhar my saber, and my rifle and pistol to Ibrahim Chokhsky.3 Understanding that our affair could not be ended through Kessler, I said to Yunus: “let’s leave him; it seems he has no other goal then to take our weapons!”. Leaving Kessler and our weapons in the hands of his translators, which have not been returned to us up until this day, we met another general, with whom was Daniel-Sultan. This general asked us: “where is Shamil, why has he not surrendered and for what reason have you come?”. I answered: “You called us”. Then this general ordered Gasan-Khan of Kazikumukh4 to send us to the commander in chief. From Daniel-Sultan I found out that this was Baron Vrangel.5 I found him to be an intelligent man. On the way we met Colonel Lazarev,6 who showed us the road to the commander in chief. Prince Baryatinsky accepted us very kindly and told us that were to introduce him to Shamil.
Returning to the village, we reached Shamil, Kazi-Muhammad,7 with their family and murids in the mosque. We told Shamil that the commander in chief asked for him, and that there will be no treachery. But Shamil was already prepared to defend himself, holding his saber before him and tucking in his belt.8 He had instead decided to die, and therefore responded to us: “You must fight, and do not speak to me about going to the commander in chief! I want to fight and die on this day”. But Kazi-Muhammad said to Shamil: “I do not want to fight, I will leave to the Russians, and you, if you want, can fight!” Shamil became very angry; even the women, who were located in the mosque with weapons in hand, began to shame and scold Kazi-Muhammad for his cowardice, and some even cursed him. In such a position we remained for four hours. Eventually, Shamil, seeing his son’s betrayal, agreed to go to the commander in chief. We rejoiced. Shamil was dressed, placed on a horse, and turning to his children, said to them: “Be at peace now, Kazi-Muhammad and Muhamad-Shafi! You began to spoil my affairs and brought them to an end with cowardice”. Shamil departed from the village and was accompanied by murids on foot. Seeing him, the entire Russian force that was located around the village cried out: “Ura!”.9 Shamil became scared and returned to the village, thinking that he had been deceived and that the Russians would kill him. But one of the murids, Muhammad Khudanat-ogly Gotsatlinsky, said to Shamil: “If you run now, you will not be saved. Better to kill Lazarev now, for the gazavat (to fight for the faith)”. At this time, Colonel Lazarev standing separately, in front of the other Russian soldiers, noticed us and said: “To where are you returning to?! Don’t be afraid! Between us there will be no treachery”. Shamil turned again and arrived to Baron Vrangel, who greeted him, and sent him further to the commander in chief. Reaching the tent of the commander in chief, Shamil got off of his horse. Here, they took him and presented Shamil to the commander in chief. Meanwhile, Baron Vrangel ordered me to bring Kazi-Muhammad and Muhammad-Shafi with their wives to him, along with the rest of Shamil’s family. I entered the mosque and found Kazi-Muhammad and his brother there with the murids. When he saw me, he asked: “Where did you leave my father?” I answered him: “Do you not know, I left him with the Sardar,10 who took him into his tent”. Then I said to him: “What do you want now?” Kazi-Muhammad answered: “I want to fight until they kill me!” I said to him: “If you had wished to fight, then you would have fought, but now the war is over. Get up and come with me!” I took him with his brother and the whole family, and led them to Baron Vrangel, who waiting for them near the village.
Baron Vrangel, having accepted them, said to me: “I am very pleased with your service and I will not forget this”. After this, I did not see Shamil again, nor the commander in chief, nor Baron Vrangel. Thus I was an intermediary at the concluding of peace. At sunset I went to my family and found my wife and children crying. Our entire estate had been plundered by the militia, and not even sowing needles remained. My wife began to reproach me and said: “You served Shamil for so many years, and what did you get? And on this day, when everyone was guarding their things, you were acting as an intermediary between Shamil and the Russians, and your estate was plundered by the militiamen”. That night with my wife and children, nearly naked, and with an uncovered head, we went barefoot to Khindakh11 and reached it by midnight, and stayed there with my kunaks.12
I had suffered a loss of 2250 rubles, along with weapons, horses, a watch, and 137 books, which I had received from my father. I had nothing left, nothing remained of my estate except for clothes and a kinzhal.13 Although my wife managed to save nearly 280 rubles worth of things by hiding them under her shirt, over the next seven days these things went missing in the house of my kunak, where I had stopped and gave him my things for safe keeping when I went to Colonel Lazarev. I know and now see, how a thief spends my money and uses my things, and I ask God, that he can help me return them. I have never seen such misfortune, as on the day that peace was concluded, all the more so as my wife and children had become accustomed to a somewhat decent life, but after this we remained hungry, naked and barefoot. But, however, I tried to forget about this misfortune. I remained alive and I did not dare to spend my time complaining that my belongings were stolen. The Russian commanders helped me and they gave me supplies to support my family.
Post-Script - The Tsar’s Breakfast at Gunib
I visited Gunib several years ago. While walking around I was stopped by police. After they had gone through my documents, they took to this place higher up in the village and explained here was where Tsar Alexander II had breakfast here with his men, on 11th September 1871.
The Avars are the largest ethnic group in Dagestan. Unrelated to the Pannonian Avars of the early Middle Ages.
General-Lieutenant Eduard Fedorovich Kessler
Likely a man from the village of Chokh, not far to the south of Gunib. He was likely a Dagestani in Russian service
The Kazikumukh Khanate, a small state in southern Dagestan based in modern day Kumukh
Baron Alexander Evstafevich Vrangel, A distant relative of Peter Nikolaevich Vrangel, commander of White Russian Armies during the civil war
Ivan Petrovich Lazarev
This is the son of Imam Shamil I believe
“заткнув полы за пояс”. This is an expression which meanings “to win” or “out shine the competition”, often used in military or sporting contexts
Russian military cry
A word for a military rank used in the Ottoman and Persian empires, equivalent to commander
A village just north of Gunib
A person bonded to you as a host or guest. In culture of the Caucasian highlanders, certain obligations of friendship and loyalty existed between guest and host
A larger dagger. Originally a Persian word that was adopted into Russian through their contact with the Caucasus